Martin M. Miles' photos with the keyword: Nicolaus Copernicus

Already in the 7th century, it was the location of a fortified Slavonic settlement, at a ford in the Vistula river. Thorn was established in 1231 under the administration of the Teutonic Order. The Teutonic Order had been called earlier by the Polish Duke Conrad of Mazovia to Christianize the pagan Baltic Pruzzes. However, the Order became active only after Emperor Frederick II granted it the right to rule over the land to be conquered in 1226. The foundation stone of the city of Thorn was laid in 1231 and soon after immigrants from Westphalia populated the town. In the 14th century, Thorn joined the Hanseatic League. The Order's efforts to simultaneously expand its sovereignty and control trade led to warlike conflicts. The city was captured by Poland in 1410 during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War however, after the First Peace of Thorn was signed in 1411, the city fell back to the Teutonic Order. In the 1420s, Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło built the Dybów Castle, located in present-day left-bank Toruń. In 1440, the gentry of Thorn co-founded the Prussian Confederation to further oppose the Knights' policies. The Confederation rose against the Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights in 1454 and its delegation submitted a petition to Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon asking him to regain power over the region as the rightful ruler. These events led to the Thirteen Years' War. The citizens of the city conquered the Teutonic castle and dismantled the fortifications. In May 1454, a ceremony was held in Toruń, during which the nobility, knights, landowners, mayors, and local officials solemnly swore allegiance to the Polish King. During the war, Toruń financially supported the Polish Army. The Thirteen Years' War ended in 1466, with the Second Peace of Thorn, in which the Teutonic Order renounced any claims to the city and recognized it as part of Poland. During the Great Northern War (Deluge), the city was besieged by Swedish troops. In the second half of the 17th century, tensions between Catholics and Protestants grew. In the early 18th century about half of the population, especially the gentry and middle class, was German-speaking and Protestant, while the other half was Polish-speaking Roman Catholic. The old town of Torun is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. - The erection of the Toruń Cathedral (Church of St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist) was started as a parish church of the old town in about 1270 in the form of a basilica. In 1351, a fire destroyed parts of the building, after which the nave was renewed, abandoning the basilical scheme in favor of a hall church. In 1406 the church tower collapsed, it was rebuilt from 1407 to 1433. Since 1557 the church was evangelical. From 1583 to 1596 Protestants and Catholics used it together. Nicolaus Copernicus was baptised in this early Gothic bronze font in 1473. The baroque lid is younger than the basin.

From 1230 to 1283 the Teutonic Order conquered the entire territory of the Slavic Prussians. In 1243 the bishop of Warmia received 1/3 of the territory of his diocese for his maintenance. The town was founded in 1353 under the name of Allensteyn by the chapter of the cathedral of Warmia on its territory. At that time, the castle was already under construction. In 1454 the town joined the Prussian Confederation against the Teutonic Order. The townspeople captured the castle and recognized the sovereignty of the Polish king, but a year later the town was reconquered by the Teutonic Order. During the war the town was in flames several times. By the peace treaty in 1466, Olsztyn and the entire Duchy of Warmia came under Polish sovereignty. For centuries the city was an important centre of trade, crafts, science and administration in the Warmia region. The "Zamek Kapituły Warmińskiej" ("Castle of Warmian Cathedral Chapter") was erected between 1346 and 1353. The south-east wing of the castle was built in the 15th century. The 40-meter tower dating back to the 14th century was placed in the eastern corner of the courtyard. In the 16th century the castle's fortifications were raised to 12 meters in height. This made the castle a major bastion located on the borders of Olsztyn. The castle belonged to the chapter of Diocese of Warmia, which until 1454 was protected by the Teutonic Order. In the years of 1516 to 1521, the administrator of the castle was Nicolaus Copernicus. Over time, the castle's importance diminished. In 1758, a direct entrance from Olsztyn was built, and a palace wing was built; the expansion meant that many of the fortifications were deconstructed. Nicolaus Copernicus lived in the north-east wing of the castle, in a large chamber with three windows. One door led to the gallery and another to the official chamber. In the gallery are still traces of the astronomical plaques he once carved into the plaster.

From 1230 to 1283 the Teutonic Order conquered the entire territory of the Slavic Prussians. In 1243 the bishop of Warmia received 1/3 of the territory of his diocese for his maintenance. The town was founded in 1353 under the name of Allensteyn by the chapter of the cathedral of Warmia on its territory. At that time, the castle was already under construction. In 1454 the town joined the Prussian Confederation against the Teutonic Order. The townspeople captured the castle and recognized the sovereignty of the Polish king, but a year later the town was reconquered by the Teutonic Order. During the war the town was in flames several times. By the peace treaty in 1466, Olsztyn and the entire Duchy of Warmia came under Polish sovereignty. For centuries the city was an important centre of trade, crafts, science and administration in the Warmia region. The "Zamek Kapituły Warmińskiej" ("Castle of Warmian Cathedral Chapter") was erected between 1346 and 1353. The south-east wing of the castle was built in the 15th century. The 40-meter tower dating back to the 14th century was placed in the eastern corner of the courtyard. In the 16th century the castle's fortifications were raised to 12 meters in height. This made the castle a major bastion located on the borders of Olsztyn. The castle belonged to the chapter of Diocese of Warmia, which until 1454 was protected by the Teutonic Order. In the years of 1516 to 1521, the administrator of the castle was Nicolaus Copernicus. Over time, the castle's importance diminished. In 1758, a direct entrance from Olsztyn was built, and a palace wing was built; the expansion meant that many of the fortifications were deconstructed. Currently, the castle houses the Museum of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship.

From 1230 to 1283 the Teutonic Order conquered the entire territory of the Slavic Prussians. In 1243 the bishop of Warmia received 1/3 of the territory of his diocese for his maintenance. The town was founded in 1353 under the name of Allensteyn by the chapter of the cathedral of Warmia on its territory. At that time, the castle was already under construction. In 1454 the town joined the Prussian Confederation against the Teutonic Order. The townspeople captured the castle and recognized the sovereignty of the Polish king, but a year later the town was reconquered by the Teutonic Order. During the war the town was in flames several times. By the peace treaty in 1466, Olsztyn and the entire Duchy of Warmia came under Polish sovereignty. For centuries the city was an important centre of trade, crafts, science and administration in the Warmia region. The "Zamek Kapituły Warmińskiej" ("Castle of Warmian Cathedral Chapter") was erected between 1346 and 1353. The south-east wing of the castle was built in the 15th century. The 40-meter tower dating back to the 14th century was placed in the eastern corner of the courtyard. In the 16th century the castle's fortifications were raised to 12 meters in height. This made the castle a major bastion located on the borders of Olsztyn. The castle belonged to the chapter of Diocese of Warmia, which until 1454 was protected by the Teutonic Order. In the years of 1516 to 1521, the administrator of the castle was Nicolaus Copernicus. Over time, the castle's importance diminished. In 1758, a direct entrance from Olsztyn was built, and a palace wing was built; the expansion meant that many of the fortifications were deconstructed. Currently, the castle houses the Museum of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship.

From 1230 to 1283 the Teutonic Order conquered the entire territory of the Slavic Prussians. In 1243 the bishop of Warmia received 1/3 of the territory of his diocese for his maintenance. The town was founded in 1353 under the name of Allensteyn by the chapter of the cathedral of Warmia on its territory. At that time, the castle was already under construction. In 1454 the town joined the Prussian Confederation against the Teutonic Order. The townspeople captured the castle and recognized the sovereignty of the Polish king, but a year later the town was reconquered by the Teutonic Order. During the war the town was in flames several times. By the peace treaty in 1466, Olsztyn and the entire Duchy of Warmia came under Polish sovereignty. For centuries the city was an important centre of trade, crafts, science and administration in the Warmia region. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) was a canon of the prince-bishopric of Warmia as well as an astronomer and physician who also devoted himself to mathematics and cartography. In his main work "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" of 1543, he describes a heliocentric view of the world, according to which the Earth is a planet, rotates on its own axis and also moves around the Sun like the other planets. The reception of the work led to the "Copernican turn", which in science is one of the caesuras marking the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era. Nicolaus Copernicus resided from 1516 to 1521 in the Zamek Kapituły Warmińskiej (Olsztyn Castle).