Martin M. Miles' photos with the keyword: Pliny the Elder

Mirobriga was an ancient city in the westernmost part of Lusitania in Roman times. It was mentioned by Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy. The city is generally associated with the archaeological site near the village of Santiago do Cacém. The Roman mines of Caveira, Mina de São Domingos and Aljustrel are each about a day's journey inland. The nearest Roman town was Cetóbriga (now Setúbal), 35 kilometres to the north.

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The Camino de Santiago is everywhere

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" The "Wounded Amazon from Écija" Ca. 135-138 AD A roman replica of a Wounded Amazon attributed to the Greek Sculptor Polykleitos (5th c BC). It was found in 2002 and is in an exceptional state of preservation.

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" The "Mosaic of the Double Kidnapping" Europe / Ganymed 3. century AD

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" The "Mosaic of the Nereids". Second half of the 2. century AD

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" The "Mosaic of the Seasons". Second half of the 2. century AD, excavated 2003-2004

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins of Écija, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" This object is known as the "Ornamental Gold Plaque of Écija". It is incomplete and made entirely of gold. The weight is 21.9 g. It is attributed to the Tartessian culture (ca. 7th century BC). It is considered to be the finest specimen from the peninsula and, with the exception of some Etruscan pieces, is not comparable in structure to any other piece from this period in the Mediterranean region.

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins of Écija, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" "Warrior Stela". Limestone. 9th - 8th century BC

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins of Écija, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" "Warrior Stela". Limestone. 9th - 8th century BC

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins of Écija, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí" Sculpture of a bull. Limestone. Iberian/pre-Roman period

During Roman times the settlement was known as Astigi. Caesar ordered the town's fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony. According to Pliny the Elder who wrote in the 1st century AD, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. After the Romans, it was ruled by successively by Suevs and Visigoths. It was also from an early date the seat of a diocese. St. Fulgentius (died before 633), was named to the see by his brother Isidore of Seville. In 711, Écija was conquered by an Islamic army on its way to Córdoba. Capital of an extensive Kūra, Écija preserved its condition as a centre of high agricultural productivity. The place was seized by Christians in 1240. The proximity to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada turned Écija into a border town. Most of the mudéjar population was expelled in 1263. The Jewish population suffered the antisemitic revolt initiated after the assault on the jewry of Seville in June 1391, that spread across Andalusia. During the 15th century, Écija was the third most important urban centre of the Kingdom of Seville after Seville and Jerez. Estimations for the 15th century yield a population of about 18,000 (today 40.000). The effects of the 1755 earthquake (Lisbon) forced a deep urban renewal. Although Astigi was one of the most completely discovered Roman cities, the city council decided against all odds in 1998 to bulldoze the Roman ruins of Écija, including a forum, a bathhouse, a gymnasium and a temple, as well as dozens of private houses, and replace them with a car park. But at least, there is the museum housed in the "Palacio de Benamejí"

Las Médulas is a historic gold-mining site. that was the most important gold mine, as well as the largest open-pit gold mine in the entire Roman Empire. The spectacular landscape of Las Médulas resulted from the "ruina montium" (wrecking of the mountains), a Roman mining technique described by Pliny the Elder. The technique employed was a type of hydraulic mining which involved undermining a mountain with large quantities of water. In order to bring the required quantities of water from the Sierra de la Cabrera, a canal system over 100 kilometres long was built. Parts of this system are still preserved today. Large-scale production did not begin until the second half of the 1st century AD. Pliny the Elder, who was a procurator in the region in 74 AD, described the technique of hydraulic mining: "What happens is far beyond the work of giants. The mountains are bored with corridors and galleries made by lamplight with a duration that is used to measure the shifts. For months, the miners cannot see the sunlight and many of them die inside the tunnels. This type of mine has been given the name of ruina montium. The cracks made in the entrails of the stone are so dangerous that it would be easier to find purpurine or pearls at the bottom of the sea than make scars in the rock. How dangerous we have made the Earth!" Opencast methods would be pursued by fire-setting, which involved building fires against the rock and quenching with water. The weakened rock could then be attacked mechanically and the debris swept away by waves of water. Pliny also stated that 20,000 Roman pounds (6,560 kg) of gold were extracted each year. The exploitation, involving 60,000 workers, brought 5,000,000 Roman pounds (1,640,000 kg) in 250 years.

Las Médulas is a historic gold-mining site. that was the most important gold mine, as well as the largest open-pit gold mine in the entire Roman Empire. The spectacular landscape of Las Médulas resulted from the "ruina montium" (wrecking of the mountains), a Roman mining technique described by Pliny the Elder. The technique employed was a type of hydraulic mining which involved undermining a mountain with large quantities of water. In order to bring the required quantities of water from the Sierra de la Cabrera, a canal system over 100 kilometres long was built. Parts of this system are still preserved today. Large-scale production did not begin until the second half of the 1st century AD. Pliny the Elder, who was a procurator in the region in 74 AD, described the technique of hydraulic mining: "What happens is far beyond the work of giants. The mountains are bored with corridors and galleries made by lamplight with a duration that is used to measure the shifts. For months, the miners cannot see the sunlight and many of them die inside the tunnels. This type of mine has been given the name of ruina montium. The cracks made in the entrails of the stone are so dangerous that it would be easier to find purpurine or pearls at the bottom of the sea than make scars in the rock. How dangerous we have made the Earth!" Opencast methods would be pursued by fire-setting, which involved building fires against the rock and quenching with water. The weakened rock could then be attacked mechanically and the debris swept away by waves of water. Pliny also stated that 20,000 Roman pounds (6,560 kg) of gold were extracted each year. The exploitation, involving 60,000 workers, brought 5,000,000 Roman pounds (1,640,000 kg) in 250 years.

Las Médulas is a historic gold-mining site. that was the most important gold mine, as well as the largest open-pit gold mine in the entire Roman Empire. The spectacular landscape of Las Médulas resulted from the "ruina montium" (wrecking of the mountains), a Roman mining technique described by Pliny the Elder. The technique employed was a type of hydraulic mining which involved undermining a mountain with large quantities of water. In order to bring the required quantities of water from the Sierra de la Cabrera, a canal system over 100 kilometres long was built. Parts of this system are still preserved today. Large-scale production did not begin until the second half of the 1st century AD. Pliny the Elder, who was a procurator in the region in 74 AD, described the technique of hydraulic mining: "What happens is far beyond the work of giants. The mountains are bored with corridors and galleries made by lamplight with a duration that is used to measure the shifts. For months, the miners cannot see the sunlight and many of them die inside the tunnels. This type of mine has been given the name of ruina montium. The cracks made in the entrails of the stone are so dangerous that it would be easier to find purpurine or pearls at the bottom of the sea than make scars in the rock. How dangerous we have made the Earth!" Opencast methods would be pursued by fire-setting, which involved building fires against the rock and quenching with water. The weakened rock could then be attacked mechanically and the debris swept away by waves of water. Pliny also stated that 20,000 Roman pounds (6,560 kg) of gold were extracted each year. The exploitation, involving 60,000 workers, brought 5,000,000 Roman pounds (1,640,000 kg) in 250 years.

Las Médulas is a historic gold-mining site. that was the most important gold mine, as well as the largest open-pit gold mine in the entire Roman Empire. The spectacular landscape of Las Médulas resulted from the "ruina montium" (wrecking of the mountains), a Roman mining technique described by Pliny the Elder. The technique employed was a type of hydraulic mining which involved undermining a mountain with large quantities of water. In order to bring the required quantities of water from the Sierra de la Cabrera, a canal system over 100 kilometres long was built. Parts of this system are still preserved today. Large-scale production did not begin until the second half of the 1st century AD. Pliny the Elder, who was a procurator in the region in 74 AD, described the technique of hydraulic mining: "What happens is far beyond the work of giants. The mountains are bored with corridors and galleries made by lamplight with a duration that is used to measure the shifts. For months, the miners cannot see the sunlight and many of them die inside the tunnels. This type of mine has been given the name of ruina montium. The cracks made in the entrails of the stone are so dangerous that it would be easier to find purpurine or pearls at the bottom of the sea than make scars in the rock. How dangerous we have made the Earth!" Opencast methods would be pursued by fire-setting, which involved building fires against the rock and quenching with water. The weakened rock could then be attacked mechanically and the debris swept away by waves of water. Pliny also stated that 20,000 Roman pounds (6,560 kg) of gold were extracted each year. The exploitation, involving 60,000 workers, brought 5,000,000 Roman pounds (1,640,000 kg) in 250 years.

One of the first printed records about this gate stated in 1859 "Of all old monuments in the Rhine valley, none as mysterious as the portal (...) near the church in Remagen". The Pfarrhoftor (= Gateway to the parish close) still is enigmatic. It may have been erected for a nearby monastery, that centered around an St. Apollinaris shrine, it may have been in deed a gate to a parish close. Actually it known since the 17th century, when parts of it were found, walled in between the rectory and the encircling wall. The parts were recovered and like pieces of a puzzle joined together. Though the cope stone was lost, the large arch was easy to reconstruct. Wether the smaller side portal originally was left or right is unclear. The 22 carved reliefs here have triggered more than a dozend different theories. I will quote some. The carving style was not appreciated by the art-historians. Already Wilhelm Bode ("Geschichte der Deutschen Plastik") wrote in 1887 that the carver was "without any artistic ambition". For me this portal has parallels in Linden and Goegging. All three portals are roughly carved - and enigmatic, blending christian, pagan and ancient icons. The only point, that is undisputed is, that the portal was erected in the second half of the 12th century. It may be, that the reliefs, seen here, are just single icons, that are not interconnected to a certain "iconographic program". This is claimed by Paul Clement (1938), Georg Dehio (1933) and Josef Minn (1942). In 1947 Albert M. Koeniger published the results of his research, interpreting the reliefs as icons of eight (!) deadly sins as described by Bishop Burchard of Worms (965-1025), author of a canon law collection (aka "Decretum Burchardi"). A monopod aka sciapod (scias = shadow) in his typical position, using his one large leg as a sunshade. These mythical creatures were well known, but rarely seen during medieval times. Sciapods were first mentioned by authors like Pliny the Elder. Albert M. Koeniger describes an idly resting man, standing for for the sin of lethargy and listlessness ("acedia").

Near the banks of the Loire all trees stand in perfect lines. Host trees for families of growing mistletoes. Around Christmas couples will probably meet under these trees and kiss. Already Pliny the Elder reports, that the mistletoe plays an important role in the Celtic mythology. Since Goscinny´s and Uderzo´s "Astérix" we all know, that Panoramix (aka "Getafix", "Miraculix"), the long bearded druid needs mistletoe (cut with a golden sickle!) to prepare the magic potion.